What was the history of
'onnagata'?
Kabuki supposedly arose in 1603 (possibly as early
as 1596) when Okuni, thought to be a Shinto priestess of doubtful
character, appeared in Kyoto and performed in innovative theatrical farces
based on outlines of 'Nô' (the classical Japanese theater) and 'kyôgen' (the
classical Japanese comic theater). As more Kabuki troupes were formed, many used
men for women's roles and women for men's roles, often providing lewd
entertainment that was little more than an advertisement for the profession of
prostitution practiced by actors of both genders. The earliest skits were known
as 'keiseikai' ("hiring a prostitute") and 'chaya asobi' ("playing in a teahouse
brothel"). There were also theater troupes composed almost entirely of women,
called 'onna kabuki' ("women's kabuki": see inscription at left), and an
all-male theater called 'wakashû kabuki' ("young men's kabuki": see inscription
at right). Both groups also served in part as loosely knit organizations for
prostitution.
The shogun's government ('bakufu', literally "tent government," thus
suggesting its military origins) did not approve of the immorality of the kabuki
and began issuing proscriptions against it as early as 1608. In 1629 a ban was
imposed on women in kabuki because women impersonating men was considered
detrimental to public morality. Occasionally the 'bakufu' also banned 'wakashû
kabuki', as in 1642. However, after 1652 more reforms were put in place and the
kabuki theater took its present form, an all-male theater called 'yarô kabuki'
("men's or fellow's kabuki"). Nevertheless, until the 1680s, prostitution and
the physical attractiveness of the younger male actors often continued to take
precedence over acting skill. There were, for example, 'yarô hyôbanki', which
were critical guidebooks that rated young male actors more for their sexual
appeal than their acting talents. The enormous popularity of actors continued
well after the 1680s and may have initially inhibited the development of the art
form, for there is evidence that actors confined themselves to the sorts of
roles most advantageous to them, often ignored written text when it did not suit
their abilities, and even altered plots to provide themselves with tailor-made
vehicles for their specific skills. As a result, playwrights were sometimes
restricted in how they could develop character and plot in the early kabuki
theater. In fact, Japan's most important playwright, Chikamatsu Monzaemon
(1653-1725), is said to have turned more and more toward writing for the puppet
theater to remove himself from the demands of actors and to better express his
artistic vision.
The actor Yoshizawa Ayame (1673-1719) was one of the greatest 'onnagata' who
ever lived and surely one of the most influential, for it was he who defined,
for generations of female impersonators, the essence of the 'onnagata' style,
both on and off the stage. 'onnagata' eventually became, ironically, the
arbiters of female style among the urban population, and their skill at
'onnarashisa' ("female likeness") represented a model for feminine ｅxpression
and behavior that women found compelling, and which they sometimes emulated.
'onnagata' excelled at performing as 'keisei' ("castle topplers," courtesans of
the highest ranks, although the term was not used to designate any specific
grade of prostitute). There were many plays with 'keisei' in the title
(particularly plays performed in Osaka), although often it did not designate
that a courtesan occupied an important role in the play. In the kabuki theater
from the late 17th century, the 'keisei' represented a most important and
demanding role for the 'onnagata', who had to concern himself with the portrayal
of beauty, experience, elegance, fidelity, and innocence in combinations that
made the 'keisei' an expressive character on the stage. Another specialty of the
'onnagata' were the roles played during the 'michiyuki-mono' ("road-going
piece," a stylized kabuki dance). Initially, this dance involved scenic
descriptions and portrayals of incidents as the characters journeyed between
famous places. Later, the term became more frequently used for the tragic
journeys of lovers in Chikamatsu's double-suicide plays. In addition, the
dramatic dance form called 'shosagoto' were pieces developed first in the
performances of the 'onnagata'. ©1999-2001 by John
Fiorillo
'onnagata', a commonly encountered term in
discussions of kabuki and ukiyo-e prints, means "woman's manner" (onna + kata).
'onnagata' were male kabuki actors who performed the roles of women. Some actors
specialized exclusively in women's roles, while others played both men's and
women's parts. The 'onnagata' wears a cloth called a 'murasaki-bôshi' ("purple
cap"), a silk headcloth used to cover the shaved forelock. It was used both
during performances in female roles and off-stage on formal occasions (the color
of the cloth was not, however, always purple). The forelocks were shaved because
apparently, in early kabuki, the shogunate required 'onnagata' to shave their
heads in an effort to make them less attractive and thus less prone to illicit
sexual commerce. Regardless of the shogunate's intentions, wearing the
'murasaki-bôshi' soon became a conventionalized part of the onnagata's persona
and had no diminishing effect on his attractiveness.